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A Novel Method for the Extraction of Electrical Power from the Vacuum Nicholas A. Reiter INTRODUCTION: Theorists and experimentalists alike have considered numerous concepts for the extraction of useful power from the Energetic Vacuum. Some of these proposals date to the 1930’s, although the bulk of published material on the topic has appeared in the last twenty-five years. A popular notion exists to the effect that a small amount of energy could conceivably be used in a novel fashion to trigger a coherence of the Vacuum, and thus produce a larger cascade of retrievable and useful power. This has often led to theories and claims regarding over-unity (OU) machines. In 1996, we discovered a minor but intriguing effect involving the seemingly spontaneous production of electrical charges within mechanically variable capacitors. Testing and definition of the effect continued through the summer and fall of 1996. From 1996 to the present, the effect remained consistent and robust, although the development of any further means of rendering the effect useful on a macroscopic scale was put on hold. In a recent re-examination of the effect, however, we have found characteristics that, when modeled, may invoke the Casimir and Unruh Effects. Thusly, we may have at our disposal a process capable of producing minor extractions of electrical energy from the Vacuum. While the effect disclosed remains very inefficient in it’s present embodiment as an energy conversion candidate, and certainly does not display any hints of "O-U", it nevertheless may prove a useful tool for studying the Energetic Vacuum. With further breakthrough developments in capacitor design, the effect may eventually become a component of a viable power source. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EFFECT: The production of voltage potentials in variable capacitors was first observed when homemade foil and plastic, or foil and paper capacitors of large size (Photo A) were flexed and compressed. The capacitors in question were of loose construction, with considerable air pocket volume due to creases and wrinkles in material. When compressed by boards, or by hand, the flattening of the structures resulted in increases in the capacitive values of up to 12%. In absolute terms, we observed changes in capacitance of between .05 and .15 µ F
Even after thorough shorting out of any accumulated charges on these devices, potentials of up to 5 volts were observed when the capacitors were manually compressed. The effect mimicked the action of a piezoelectric transducer, as the potential arose only during the duration of the deformation. Interestingly, upon relief of the capacitor stresses, the potential as read by a high input impedance meter would typically swing past zero, to a negative value, before returning finally to zero. A series of simple experiments, recounted in our first paper on the effect published in 1996 A number of surplus air variable capacitors (Cardwell, 20 to 1200pF) were incorporated into a further set of experiments. It was discovered that when the movable plate set (rotor) of one of the variable capacitors was quickly rotated from an un-meshed to a fully meshed position with the stator, a potential of up to 2 mV was developed during the meshing cycle. Furthermore, when the rotor of the assembly was rotated back to the un-meshed position, an equivalent potential of the opposite polarity arose. Voltages were originally read with a Fluke 77 DVM, however other high input impedance (>10 M ohm) meters were equally useful. A single Cardwell cap was mounted inside a grounded, closed aluminum chassis. The shaft of the cap was coupled to a small DC motor mounted outside of the box. A Sencore SC-61 oscilloscope was connected to the terminals of the cap. When rotated at approximately 120 rpm, a corresponding sine wave output from the capacitor was observed. Peak- to- peak magnitude averaged 16 - 20 mV. Recent experiments in 1999 have continued to demonstrate the validity and robust nature of the effect. We established a mechanical connection between six of the Cardwell air variables in series, and installed jumpers to place all six units in electrical parallel. (Photo B) The rotors of all were synchronized with respect to angular position. Thus, a simultaneous rotation of all units was made possible. When connected to a meter, we now observe a voltage output of 10 to 11 mV when the capacitor set is quickly turned from fully meshed to fully un-meshed position.
This demonstrates that the magnitude of the effect seems to scale linearly with increasing capacitive shift. Another experiment demonstrates that changing the dielectric constant of the inter-plate medium increases the magnitude of the produced voltage. A single Cardwell cap was lowered into a 500 ml beaker filled with silicone vacuum pump oil. When given a spin, we now observe a maximum output of about 4 to 5 mV. Given that the nominal dielectric constant of silicone oil is between 2 and 3, it would appear as though the produced voltage again has scaled with increased capacitance. We also observed, however, that when oil was poured over the plates of a stationary Cardwell cap, thus changing the capacitance WITHOUT motion of the conductive plates, no voltages were produced. From this, we find evidence to say that the production of potentials is due to the relative motion of conductive plates. We have moved the six-capacitor stack to numerous locations, in both city and rural areas, indoors and out, and have observed no appreciable differences in the performance of the effect. Earth grounded copper foil shielding wrapped around a steel pipe shield caused no noticeable attenuation of the effect. At the end of the 1996 experiments, there remained a very important question. It was observed early in our work that for a given device, whether flexible large value capacitor, or air variable, the polarity of the voltage potentials produced remained absolutely constant. Additionally, for all of the Cardwell air variables, the polarity has remained constant from piece to piece. In this effect, which seemingly produces a voltage out of "nowhere" in a capacitor, what factor decides which plate set becomes positively charged, and which becomes negative? It is well known that many of the famous early electrostatic "influence" machines, such as the Wimshurst machine, will spontaneously reverse polarity upon successive start-ups or during operation. In the case of the variable capacitance effect, this does not seem to occur. We are currently examining this factor carefully. If one of the large flexible capacitors is physically flipped upside down, but meter leads are not interchanged, the polarity of the produced potentials remains constant. It would thus seem that the potential polarity is determined by a factor internal to the capacitor. As a result of our examinations of the effect from 1996 to the present, we make the following set of statements:
ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS: Since 1996, two general approaches toward the engineering of variable capacitance have been considered:
The majority of our recent activities have dealt with the second possibility. Sources of rotary mechanical power are prevalent and may be applied universally. The coupling of an air variable capacitor to an electric motor, and the measurement of an alternating current output, formed the basis for our further design work. A very promising design, conceived in 1996, has recently been tested and examined rigorously. An elementary version of this system, hereafter referred to as the VCG, or Variable Capacitance Generator, has consistently produced open circuit potentials of up to 15Vp-p, and when coupled through a bridge rectifier, has produced short circuit currents of up to 25 microamperes. On the 21st of September, 1999, we succeeded in dimly lighting a red LED with the rectified output of the VCG. The design and operation of the VCG are thoroughly covered in the following section of this paper. The engineering of the variable capacitance effect becomes a task of materials and close tolerance machining and fabrication. Metal or metallized rotating plates must contain a high degree of dimensional stability to mesh at very small spacings with stationary planar surfaces. The variable capacitors used for preliminary experiments contain plate spacings of .020 to .050 inch. However, when enlarged to rotor sizes of 8 to 10 inch diameter, these sorts of gaps may become problematic. We certainly desire to fabricate such plate assemblies from as lightweight material as possible. The classic air variable capacitor also typically takes one of it's connections directly from the rotor assembly via a spring brush. It has been found by many that accurate measurement of small voltages and currents is difficult in circuits where a brush to rotor connection is present. Thusly, brush losses are a factor to be contended with, however our VCG design demonstrates that a brush-less geometry is not only feasible, but is quite advantageous. Despite engineering challenges, the scaling of a variable capacitor geometry need not be exorbitant to become a useful power source. If we consider that a shift in capacitance of 1100 pF over a period of one second is capable of producing between 1 and 2 millivolt potentials, then an enlarged structure, capable of perhaps a 1 µ F shift, rotated at 1000 rpm, may well produce an alternating potential of between 50 and 100 volts. The question of usefulness is most strongly tied to the matter of output current. In the case of compressed flexible capacitors, we observed impulse currents of up to 10 microamperes during deformation. Is there an approach to maximizing output current? From our initial set of observations, it seems as though the power output of a variable capacitor may be represented by the equivalent circuit shown as FIGURE A. Severe limiting of current appears to be imposed exclusively by Xc. However, at larger values of Cmax and higher rotational or impulse frequencies, Xc will drop considerably. However, we also predict that the output of a generator using the variable capacitance effect may be quite unique under load. Because Xc of the generator rises during the period of decreasing C and peaks during Cmin, we find that even though a sinusoidal voltage is produced, current flows in a pulsed configuration. Thus, under load, the raw output of such a generator would mimic that of a half wave rectified power supply. THE VARIABLE CAPACITANCE GENERATOR: The observations accrued since 1996 have been used to design, build, and test a series of simple rotating generators based on the variable capacitance effect. This family of machines has been called the Variable Capacitance Generator series, or VCG. Even though there is a certain novelty in the VCG designs, vast opportunity remains for further refinement and exploitation! One of the first considerations given was an effective method for eliminating brushes. FIGURE B shows the basic approach used to accomplish this. A set of bisected metal sectors are patterned or mounted on a stationary disc or drum. Parallel electrical connections are made from sector halves, and are connected to a meter or load. Another set of sectors are mounted or patterned onto a disc or drum that rotates in close proximity to the stator. Rather than making electrical connections to opposing capacitor plates in relative motion, we connect to a stationary structure that has a minimal capacitance when no conductive surface overlies it. The bringing into opposition of a third sector that comprises the same area as the stationary bisected sector brings about a shift in capacitance that in turn induces a potential across the stator. This sequence is provided by the motion of the sectored rotor in close proximity to the stator. When the brushless VCG concept was first tried out with a simple sectored disc pair geometry, two surprising observations were made:
The first 1996 version of the VCG was constructed of aluminum foil sectors glued to old LP vinyl records, and spun with a small AC fan motor. A second model was an attempt at a multi-disc design, but suffered from dynamic balance problems and warping of the rotor discs. Both of these designs featured both rotor and stator discs patterned with two opposing 90o wide foil sectors each. (FIGURE D) With the re-activation of work on the VCG in mid-1999, higher grade materials and instrumentation were brought into the program. FIGURE E shows the basic set-up we have used since August of 1999 to demonstrate, and allow basic research to be performed on, the VCG concept. For rotor and stator discs, we have made use of spare compact discs. Metallized sectors were patterned onto the plastic CD surfaces by sputtering; typically 3000A of aluminum followed by a 200A film of Cr. VCG version 1.1 employed 4 sectors per disc, of 45o width each. Version 1.2 contains 12 sectors of 15o width on both rotor and stator. Connections are made to the stator sectors using tinned copper foil ribbon backed by conductive adhesive. Views of these systems are shown in Photos C, D, and E.
Rotation is provided by a high frequency motor (Neodyne Corp.) with a tachometer output. This has proved very useful in the examination of generator output versus rotational speed. We have examined the operation of VCG versions 1.1 and 1.2 at speeds up to 10,000 rpm, beyond which vibration of the rotor becomes visible and significant. Experiments are currently underway to examine the effects of coating the metalized rotor and stator sectors with ceramic or polymer materials. We have also recently used a novel method of surface texturing to produce rotor sectors with a greater total metallized surface area. On 13 October, 1999, we observed an increase in output voltage and current of over 50% attributable to our texturing process. (Up to 15V open circuit rectified, with an Isc of 25 uA.) We are also in the process of constructing a multi-stage VCG version using ten rotor and ten stator discs. TEST RESULTS AND OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS: We have used a variety of instruments to examine the output of VCG versions 1.1 and 1.2. Several DVMs of high input impedence, as well as an ultra-high input impedence electrometer have verified that both the raw AC output and the rectified potentials are consistent, and are not due to artifact of instrumentation. We have confirmed output currents with analog D'Arsonval meters as well as digital. The alternating potential produced by the VCG simulates a sinusoidal wave, the frequency of which varies directly with rotational speed. The output of the 4 sector VCG 1.1 was seen to resemble the compound profile of the capacitance change more closely than 1.2. Version 1.2, with 12 sectors, seems to produce a purer sine, however we observe a curious sawtooth or high frequency ripple superimposed on the main wave. The move from 4 sectors to 12 was seen to increase the power output of the VCG arrangement. This confirmed our prediction that increasing the frequency of the variable capacitance effect would increase the level of potentials produced, as well as lower values for capacitive reactance Xc. The following table and graph display the results of a set of test runs made in early October 1999, using the VCG version 1.1 (4 sectors). Output voltage (non-rectified) from the VCG was measured with a Fluke 79 meter; tachometer output was monitored with a Tektronix oscilloscope. (Visual assessment) Output Voc; in AC Volts (rms)
Allowing for uncertainties of measurement for rotor-to-stator gap and for oscilloscope readings of the tachometer signal, two relationships begin to emerge, although we temper these with the caveat of dependence on specific VCG design:
In the exploration of a new principle or effect, it is advantageous to understand how changes in design, materials, and the presence of external factors can affect the output of a system. We have noted the following:
In an interesting variation of the VCG concept, we have found that a linear translation of the rotor disc toward and away from the stator is also capable of producing output power. We mounted the stator disc on the end of a 1" long by 1" diameter piece of plastic pipe. The opposing end was glued to the center of a medium sized 8 ohm speaker. The rotor disc / speaker assembly was then positioned underneath the stator at a spacing of about 2mm, and a 60 cycle signal was fed into the speaker. The vibratory deflection observed was approximately .5 to 1.0 mm. (We positioned the rotor disc such that the segments were in position under the stator segments) Although the stresses from the speaker vibration caused the loosening of the glue holding the center support in place, we observed a maximum output of approximately 2.3V (rectified) before the unit came apart. This initial demonstration thus shows that a vibratory or oscillatory VCG is feasible. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS: The discovery of a novel physical effect demands rigor in the elimination of possible artifacts. This is especially true of effects of a purely serendipitous heritage. It is also a time when theoretical modeling proceeds in a very delicate manner. For the near future, independent confirmation of the assertions in this paper must be carried out, in parallel with further engineering of the VCG. The generation and publishing of this paper is thus pursuant to these ends. Nevertheless, it does not seem improper to conduct some initial theoretical speculation of the effect. Since 1996, the body of literature on the topic of the physical vacuum and it's properties has
expanded, and has become readily available to both professional and amateur scientists. Experimental verifications
of the Casimir Effect have produced measurements in close agreement with predicted values In a fundamental way, the elementary capacitor represents a structure in which a Casimir force is certainly present. In fact, one may also state that the capacitance of a structure and the magnitude of Casimir forces in that same structure vary together, although at different rates, with at least some of the possible changes in structural geometry! As discussed early in this paper, the change of dielectric properties without a change of conductive plate position did not produce any potentials in a Cardwell capacitor. Similarly, in 1996, a switching circuit was built wherein two capacitors were switched in and out of parallel connection with each other. No potentials were observed in this arrangement either. Therefore, it would seem that the production of potentials in the capacitor or VCG is dependent on relative motion of conductive elements, which in turn (theoretically) would also produce a change in Casimir force. Might we rename the VCG as a Variable Casimir Generator? It has been pointed out appropriately that in some regards, the VCG resembles an obscure but
useful device known as the charge mill. Several references with drawings of this device have been examined. The
charge mill seems to have been the basis for an early family of sensitive electrometers Three observed factors, however, may raise doubts as to whether a charge mill mechanism is present in the VCG or in other variable capacitor geometries. The charge mill relies on an open access for external lines of force to impinge upon the rotor and stator pair. Both Cardwell capacitor and VCG have displayed un-altered output values when enclosed in reasonable E and H field shielding. We have also noted that the interposing of a dielectric barrier, such as an alumina plate, between VCG rotor and stator either does not attenuate the output, or actually seems to increase the output slightly. Finally, the stationary portion of the charge mill comprises only one pole of the resulting charged structure, as opposed to the bisected VCG stator segments that form a set of dipoles. Barring the discovery of a major unsuspected artifact, or the emergence of a reasonably derived mechanistic explanation based on classical electrostatic principles, we hold that the effects disclosed in this paper are a result of an interaction with the Energetic Vacuum. If this should be reasonably proven over time, then the VCG may represent the first useful and reproducible device capable of converting a small amount of the virtual flux of the Vacuum into electrical energy. SOME FINAL SPECULATIONS: While the prospect of a new source of electrical energy is indeed exciting, it is, in fact, secondary to the prospect of observable manipulation of the Vacuum. As proof of the energy of the Vacuum grows, through the findings of many researchers, we may continue to discover surprising and useful effects. We are not the first, for example, to speculate that manipulation of the Vacuum flux may affect the force of gravity in a local region. Additionally, some theorists have speculated that creating regions of negative energy could lead to the controllable and traversable wormholes. If one takes a region of space, and extracts a discrete amount of the Vacuum flux from it, could this not be synonymous with creating a region of negative energy? Will anomalous changes in temperature, acceleration due to gravity, or even the flow of time be observed in the vicinity of a device capable of Vacuum energy extraction? Only dedicated experimentation will tell. In closing, we would like to acknowledge the assistance and input of Dr. Samuel Faile, of Cincinnati, Ohio. The discovery of the production of voltage potentials in flexible capacitors was made using capacitors provided by Dr. Faile for spark gap discharge research. Without those early devices, it is doubtful that the effects disclosed in this paper would have come to light. These activities have been conducted as part of the ongoing research and development program of the Avalon Foundation. REFERENCES:
ILLUSRATIONS:
Project Update: VCG 2.0; The Multiple Disc Unit On 15 December, we performed initial testing on our multi - disc VCG 2.0 machine. The photograph below shows this system in operation.
VCG 2.0 consists of an aluminum and steel frame, supporting a motor driven rotor assembly comprising five segmented rotor discs mounted with insulating spacers on an aluminum shaft. Metalized patterning on the rotor discs is identical to that of the single disc rotor of VCG 1.2 (twelve segments, sputter coated with 2000A of aluminum and 300A of Cr) The discs of the rotor assembly are allowed to turn in close proximity (about 3mm) to a set of stator discs, again, of identical design to the unit in VCG 1.2. The five stators are spaced with small aluminum hex spacers and plastic tabs. The bisected segments of each stator are aligned in phase. Electrical connections to the stator segments are made with Chomerics conductive tape and soldered jumpers of #28 wire. All five stators are wired in electrical parallel, and connected to a silicon bridge rectifier. A small Maxxon DC tape recorder motor was used to drive the rotor assembly. Initially, our intention had been to use ten rotor and ten stator discs. Upon initial construction, however, it was found that warping of stator discs and slight inequalities in spacers were preventing free motion and clearance of the rotor. Thus, the decision was made to fall back to a five - fold system, which allowed for more leisurely spacing between stator/rotor pairs. Initial output of the VCG 2.0 was somewhat disappointing. We had initially predicted that a five - fold system should have produced a rectified output of 35 to 50 volts. First run voltages, however, did not rise above 12 volts at full speed (around 4800 rpm). Careful evaluation of the system revealed several significant loss mechanisms, which we have since been able to identify and take corrective action for. Primary among these is a requirement for precise alignment or phasing of both rotor and stator discs. For VCG 2.0, based on twelve sector discs, a deviation of more than 2 to 3 degrees on any one or more rotor discs, from perfect in-phase alignment, will radically decrease the output potential. The most likely reason for this criticality is that if any set of rotor sectors is finishing transit across the bisected stator sectors at the same time that other sectors are beginning transit, then not only do the produced potentials become subtractive, but a serious capacitive shunt is formed. As a confirming experiment, one rotor disc out of the five was turned slightly to place it's sectors approximately 90° out of phase with the others. We find that this re-alignment reduced the total rectified Voc by over 50%. Other loss mechanisms include imperfections and scratches in metalized sectors, high resistance bridges due to slight metalized "over-spray" between stator sectors, and variance in gap due to rotor disc wobbling. Nevertheless, after a modest addressing of these issues, a far better output has been achieved. On 24 December, we observed an open circuit rectified output potential of 37.85 volts, and a short circuit current of 44.9 microamperes. With this being accomplished, we have successfully demonstrated that a multi - disc geometry for the VCG is a realistic and practical approach toward greater levels of energy conversion. On 17 December, another key experiment was performed with VCG 2.0. The unit was mounted under an 18" pyrex bell jar, and connected to a power supply and Fluke meter via vacuum feed-throughs. Rotation was initiated at a slow speed, until a stable reading of 3.5 volts was achieved. We then dropped the bell, and began evacuation of the vessel. Two pump out and back-fill cycles were performed, while the VCG was operating. Base pressure in the bell jar before each back-fill was recorded as 5.0E-4. During the course of the experiment, we observe that the output of the VCG remains quite constant. Below approximately 100 millitorr, a slow rise in output potential was noted, of about .2 volts magnitude. We attribute this to a slight speeding up of the rotor due to a lack of atmospheric drag. Thus, we have demonstrated that the mechanism for energy conversion embodied by the VCG is unaffected by the absence of air or other atmosphere. Continued refinement and troubleshooting of VCG 2.0 is on-going. Our next task will consist of installing appropriate spacers for the re-connection of the other five stator and rotor disc pairs. |
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, eliminated some of possibility of artifact with respect to the
flexible capacitors. However, the discovery that seemed to provide the strongest evidence for a genuine physical
novelty was the translation of the basic effect into commercially available air variable capacitors.
.
Investigators of sonoluminescence have invoked the dynamic Casimir Effect (Unruh Effect) as a component of a
viable model. Other investigations into the role of Casimir forces in materials at a microscopic level are
underway
.
. Electrical
lines of force, from external charged bodies or regions, pass through a region of space where a segmented rotor
turns in proximity to a segmented stator. The chopping of the lines produces a pulsed current of typically
nano-ampere magnitude, which is then in turn amplified by either vacuum tube or solid-state means. The magnitude
of the amplified signal is seen to change proportionally with the strength of the impinging electrostatic field,
given a constant rotor speed.
